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The adaptation may be physiologic (normal) or pathologic (abnormal). Four types of morphological adaptations include: 1. Atrophy, 2. Hypertrophy, 3. Hyperplasia, and 4. Metaplasia.
The adaptation may be physiologic (normal) or pathologic (abnormal). Four types of morphological adaptations include:
1. Atrophy,
2. Hypertrophy,
3. Hyperplasia, and
4. Metaplasia.
In cell biology and pathophysiology, cellular adaptation refers to changes made by a cell in response to adverse or varying environmental changes.
In cell biology and pathophysiology, cellular adaptation refers to changes made by a cell in response to adverse or varying environmental changes.
See lessPhagocytosis is a process by which certain living cells called phagocytes ingest or engulf other cells or particles. Phagocytes may be free-living one-celled organisms, such as amoebas, or body cells, such as white blood cells. In higher animals, phagocytosis is chiefly a defensive reaction againstRead more
Phagocytosis is a process by which certain living cells called phagocytes ingest or engulf other cells or particles. Phagocytes may be free-living one-celled organisms, such as amoebas, or body cells, such as white blood cells. In higher animals, phagocytosis is chiefly a defensive reaction against infection.
The process of phagocytosis can be divided into several steps:
1. **Activation of Phagocytic cells and Chemotaxis:** The cell that will perform phagocytosis is activated. In the case of immune cells, activation occurs when the cells are near bacterial cells or parts of bacterial cells. Receptors on the surface of the cells bind to these molecules and cause the cells to respond.
2. **Recognition of invading microbes:** In the immune system, chemotaxis may occur. Chemotaxis is the movement of phagocytes toward a concentration of molecules. Immune cells pick up chemical signals and migrate toward invading bacteria or damaged cells.
3. **Ingestion and formation of phagosomes:** The cell attaches to the particle that it will ingest. Attachment is necessary for ingestion to occur ¹.
4. **Formation of phagolysome:** The cell ingests the particle, and the particle is enclosed in a vesicle (a sphere of cell membrane with fluid in it) called a phagosome.
5. **Microbial killing and formation of residual bodies:** The phagosome then fuses with a lysosome, forming a phagolysosome, where the particle is digested.
6. **Elimination or exocytosis:** The digested material is then released from the cell.
Phagocytosis is the process by which a cell uses its plasma membrane to engulf a large particle (≥ 0.5 μm), giving rise to an internal compartment called the phagosome. It is one type of endocytosis. A cell that performs phagocytosis is called a phagocyte.
Phagocytosis is the process by which a cell uses its plasma membrane to engulf a large particle (≥ 0.5 μm), giving rise to an internal compartment called the phagosome. It is one type of endocytosis. A cell that performs phagocytosis is called a phagocyte.
See lessChemical mediators of inflammation are substances that are responsible for many of the inflammatory events. According to their origin, they are either plasma-derived or cell-derived. Most mediators perform their job by binding to specific receptors on target cells. One mediator can stimulate the relRead more
Chemical mediators of inflammation are substances that are responsible for many of the inflammatory events. According to their origin, they are either plasma-derived or cell-derived. Most mediators perform their job by binding to specific receptors on target cells. One mediator can stimulate the release of other mediators. The secondary mediators may have identical or similar actions to the initial mediators but may have opposing activities.
The functions of chemical mediators of inflammation include:
– **Stimulating release and mediation of target cells themselves:** The secondary mediators have similar or opposite effects.
– **Chemical action:** One or many target cells with different effects.
– **Scavenging oxygen species**.
– **Causing tissue damage:** Histamine and serotonin are examples of mediators that cause tissue damage.
One means of classifying them is by tissue of origin: A) Plasma-derived: inactive precursors produced in the liver and circulate as plasma proteins. Activated by binding specific substances which then triggers proteolysis of the next plasma protein in sequence. Examples include: 1. Kinin system. 2.Read more
One means of classifying them is by tissue of origin:
A) Plasma-derived: inactive precursors produced in the liver and circulate as plasma proteins. Activated by binding specific substances which then triggers proteolysis of the next plasma protein in sequence. Examples include:
1. Kinin system.
2. Clotting system.
3. Fibrinolytic system.
4. Complement cascade.
B) Tissue-derived: a diverse range of substances whose release is triggered by a number of stimuli e.g. direct injury, neurogenic stimuli, immune mechanisms, or other inflammatory mediators. Examples include:
1. Vasoactive amines: histamine and serotonin.
2. Eicosanoids – arachidonic acid metabolites.
3. Acute phase proteins.
4. Platelet-activating factor.
5. Lysosomal constituents.
6. Cytokines.
7. Growth factors.
Chronic inflammation symptoms may be harder to spot than acute inflammation symptoms. Signs of chronic inflammation can include: Abdominal pain. Chest pain. Fatigue. (example: systemic lupus) Fever. (example: tuberculosis) Joint pain or stiffness. (example: rheumatoid arthritis) Mouth sores. (examplRead more
Chronic inflammation symptoms may be harder to spot than acute inflammation symptoms. Signs of chronic inflammation can include:
Abdominal pain.
Chest pain.
Fatigue. (example: systemic lupus)
Fever. (example: tuberculosis)
Joint pain or stiffness. (example: rheumatoid arthritis)
Mouth sores. (example: HIV infection)
Skin rash. (example: psoriasis)
Several things can cause chronic inflammation, including: 1. Untreated causes of acute inflammation, like an infection or injury. 2. An autoimmune disorder, which involves your immune system mistakenly attacking healthy tissue. 3. Long-term exposure to irritants, like industrial chemicals or polluteRead more
Several things can cause chronic inflammation, including:
1. Untreated causes of acute inflammation, like an infection or injury.
2. An autoimmune disorder, which involves your immune system mistakenly attacking healthy tissue.
3. Long-term exposure to irritants, like industrial chemicals or polluted air.
4. Smoking.
5. Obesity.
6. Alcohol.
7. Chronic stress.
Acute inflammation is the initial physiological response to tissue damage, such as that caused by mechanical, thermal, electrical, irradiation, chemical, or infective insults. It can be acute (lasting for a few days) or chronic (in response to an ongoing and unresolved insult). Inflammation can deveRead more
Acute inflammation is the initial physiological response to tissue damage, such as that caused by mechanical, thermal, electrical, irradiation, chemical, or infective insults. It can be acute (lasting for a few days) or chronic (in response to an ongoing and unresolved insult). Inflammation can develop into permanent tissue damage or fibrosis.
Different morphological types of acute inflammation include:
1. **Catarrhal inflammation:** A surface inflammation associated with greatly increased secretion of clear mucus. Later, polymorphs appear.
2. **Hemorrhagic inflammation:** Inflammation with bleeding.
3. **Suppuration:** Inflammation with pus formation.
4. **Serous inflammation:** Inflammation with fluid accumulation.
5. **Fibrinous inflammation:** Inflammation with fibrin deposition.
6. **Pseudomembranous inflammation:** Inflammation with a false membrane formation.
7. **Ulcer:** Inflammation with tissue loss.
Reduction in size of cell, organ, or tissue, after attaining its normal mature growth.
Reduction in size of cell, organ, or tissue, after attaining its normal mature growth.
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