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An increase and growth of muscle cells. Hypertrophy refers to an increase in muscular size achieved through exercise. When you work out.
An increase and growth of muscle cells. Hypertrophy refers to an increase in muscular size achieved through exercise. When you work out.
See less1. Unused muscles can waste away if you’re not active. 2. Muscle atrophy can also happen if you’re bedridden or unable to move certain body parts due to a medical condition. 3. Lack of physical activity for an extended period of time. 4. Aging. 5. Alcohol-associated myopathy, pain, and weakness in mRead more
1. Unused muscles can waste away if you’re not active.
2. Muscle atrophy can also happen if you’re bedridden or unable to move certain body parts due to a medical condition.
3. Lack of physical activity for an extended period of time.
4. Aging.
5. Alcohol-associated myopathy, pain, and weakness in muscles due to excessive drinking over long periods of time.
6. Burns.
7. Injuries, such as a torn rotator cuff or broken bones.
8. Malnutrition.
9. Spinal cord or peripheral nerve injuries.
10. Stroke.
11. Long-term corticosteroid therapy.
12. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also known as Lou Gehrig’s disease, affects nerve cells that control voluntary muscle movement.
13. Dermatomyositis, causes muscle weakness and skin rash.
14. Guillain-Barré syndrome, an autoimmune condition that leads to nerve inflammation and muscle weakness.
15. Multiple sclerosis, an autoimmune condition in which the body destroys the protective coverings of nerves.
16. Muscular dystrophy, an inherited condition that causes muscle weakness.
17. Neuropathy, damage to a nerve or nerve group, resulting in loss of sensation or function.
18. Osteoarthritis, causes reduced motion in the joints.
19. Polio, a viral disease affecting muscle tissue that can lead to paralysis.
20. Polymyositis, an inflammatory disease.
21. Rheumatoid arthritis, a chronic inflammatory autoimmune condition that affects the joints.
22. Spinal muscular atrophy, a hereditary condition causing arm and leg muscles to waste away
Types of atrophy: 1. Glandular Atrophy. 2. Vaginal Atrophy. 3. Skeletal Muscle Atrophy. 4. Spinal Muscular Atrophy. 5. Multiple System Atrophy.
Types of atrophy:
1. Glandular Atrophy.
2. Vaginal Atrophy.
3. Skeletal Muscle Atrophy.
4. Spinal Muscular Atrophy.
5. Multiple System Atrophy.
Reduction in size of cell, organ, or tissue, after attaining its normal mature growth.
Reduction in size of cell, organ, or tissue, after attaining its normal mature growth.
See lessThe adaptation may be physiologic (normal) or pathologic (abnormal). Four types of morphological adaptations include: 1. Atrophy, 2. Hypertrophy, 3. Hyperplasia, and 4. Metaplasia.
The adaptation may be physiologic (normal) or pathologic (abnormal). Four types of morphological adaptations include:
1. Atrophy,
2. Hypertrophy,
3. Hyperplasia, and
4. Metaplasia.
In cell biology and pathophysiology, cellular adaptation refers to changes made by a cell in response to adverse or varying environmental changes.
In cell biology and pathophysiology, cellular adaptation refers to changes made by a cell in response to adverse or varying environmental changes.
See lessPhagocytosis is a process by which certain living cells called phagocytes ingest or engulf other cells or particles. Phagocytes may be free-living one-celled organisms, such as amoebas, or body cells, such as white blood cells. In higher animals, phagocytosis is chiefly a defensive reaction againstRead more
Phagocytosis is a process by which certain living cells called phagocytes ingest or engulf other cells or particles. Phagocytes may be free-living one-celled organisms, such as amoebas, or body cells, such as white blood cells. In higher animals, phagocytosis is chiefly a defensive reaction against infection.
The process of phagocytosis can be divided into several steps:
1. **Activation of Phagocytic cells and Chemotaxis:** The cell that will perform phagocytosis is activated. In the case of immune cells, activation occurs when the cells are near bacterial cells or parts of bacterial cells. Receptors on the surface of the cells bind to these molecules and cause the cells to respond.
2. **Recognition of invading microbes:** In the immune system, chemotaxis may occur. Chemotaxis is the movement of phagocytes toward a concentration of molecules. Immune cells pick up chemical signals and migrate toward invading bacteria or damaged cells.
3. **Ingestion and formation of phagosomes:** The cell attaches to the particle that it will ingest. Attachment is necessary for ingestion to occur ¹.
4. **Formation of phagolysome:** The cell ingests the particle, and the particle is enclosed in a vesicle (a sphere of cell membrane with fluid in it) called a phagosome.
5. **Microbial killing and formation of residual bodies:** The phagosome then fuses with a lysosome, forming a phagolysosome, where the particle is digested.
6. **Elimination or exocytosis:** The digested material is then released from the cell.
Phagocytosis is the process by which a cell uses its plasma membrane to engulf a large particle (≥ 0.5 μm), giving rise to an internal compartment called the phagosome. It is one type of endocytosis. A cell that performs phagocytosis is called a phagocyte.
Phagocytosis is the process by which a cell uses its plasma membrane to engulf a large particle (≥ 0.5 μm), giving rise to an internal compartment called the phagosome. It is one type of endocytosis. A cell that performs phagocytosis is called a phagocyte.
See lessChemical mediators of inflammation are substances that are responsible for many of the inflammatory events. According to their origin, they are either plasma-derived or cell-derived. Most mediators perform their job by binding to specific receptors on target cells. One mediator can stimulate the relRead more
Chemical mediators of inflammation are substances that are responsible for many of the inflammatory events. According to their origin, they are either plasma-derived or cell-derived. Most mediators perform their job by binding to specific receptors on target cells. One mediator can stimulate the release of other mediators. The secondary mediators may have identical or similar actions to the initial mediators but may have opposing activities.
The functions of chemical mediators of inflammation include:
– **Stimulating release and mediation of target cells themselves:** The secondary mediators have similar or opposite effects.
– **Chemical action:** One or many target cells with different effects.
– **Scavenging oxygen species**.
– **Causing tissue damage:** Histamine and serotonin are examples of mediators that cause tissue damage.
There are two types of hypertrophy: 1. Physiological. 2. Pathological. Hypertrophy initially develops as an adaptive response to physiological and pathological stimuli, but pathological hypertrophy generally progresses to heart failure. Each form of hypertrophy is regulated by distinct cellular signRead more
There are two types of hypertrophy:
See less1. Physiological.
2. Pathological.
Hypertrophy initially develops as an adaptive response to physiological and pathological stimuli, but pathological hypertrophy generally progresses to heart failure. Each form of hypertrophy is regulated by distinct cellular signaling pathways.