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What are the characteristics of chronic inflammation?
Chronic inflammation symptoms may be harder to spot than acute inflammation symptoms. Signs of chronic inflammation can include: Abdominal pain. Chest pain. Fatigue. (example: systemic lupus) Fever. (example: tuberculosis) Joint pain or stiffness. (example: rheumatoid arthritis) Mouth sores. (examplRead more
Chronic inflammation symptoms may be harder to spot than acute inflammation symptoms. Signs of chronic inflammation can include:
Abdominal pain.
See lessChest pain.
Fatigue. (example: systemic lupus)
Fever. (example: tuberculosis)
Joint pain or stiffness. (example: rheumatoid arthritis)
Mouth sores. (example: HIV infection)
Skin rash. (example: psoriasis)
What are the differences between acute and chronic inflammation?
There are two types of inflammation: 1. Acute inflammation: The response to sudden body damage, such as cutting your finger. To heal the cut, your body sends inflammatory cells to the injury. These cells start the healing process. 2. Chronic inflammation: Your body continues sending inflammatory celRead more
There are two types of inflammation:
1. Acute inflammation: The response to sudden body damage, such as cutting your finger. To heal the cut, your body sends inflammatory cells to the injury. These cells start the healing process.
See less2. Chronic inflammation: Your body continues sending inflammatory cells even when there is no outside danger. For example, in rheumatoid arthritis inflammatory cells and substances attack joint tissues leading to an inflammation that comes and goes and can cause severe damage to joints with pain and deformities.
What are the different types of chemical mediators of inflammation?
One means of classifying them is by tissue of origin: A) Plasma-derived: inactive precursors produced in the liver and circulate as plasma proteins. Activated by binding specific substances which then triggers proteolysis of the next plasma protein in sequence. Examples include: 1. Kinin system. 2.Read more
One means of classifying them is by tissue of origin:
A) Plasma-derived: inactive precursors produced in the liver and circulate as plasma proteins. Activated by binding specific substances which then triggers proteolysis of the next plasma protein in sequence. Examples include:
1. Kinin system.
2. Clotting system.
3. Fibrinolytic system.
4. Complement cascade.
B) Tissue-derived: a diverse range of substances whose release is triggered by a number of stimuli e.g. direct injury, neurogenic stimuli, immune mechanisms, or other inflammatory mediators. Examples include:
See less1. Vasoactive amines: histamine and serotonin.
2. Eicosanoids – arachidonic acid metabolites.
3. Acute phase proteins.
4. Platelet-activating factor.
5. Lysosomal constituents.
6. Cytokines.
7. Growth factors.
What are the differences between the hypertrophy and hyperplasia?
1. Definition of Hypertrophy and Hyperplasia: Hypertrophy: Hypertrophy is an increase in the volume of a given tissue or organ due only to the enlargement of the cells. Hyperplasia: Hyperplasia is an increase in the amount of tissue, resulting from cell proliferation. 2. Genesis of Hypertrophy and HRead more
1. Definition of Hypertrophy and Hyperplasia:
Hypertrophy: Hypertrophy is an increase in the volume of a given tissue or organ due only to the enlargement of the cells.
Hyperplasia: Hyperplasia is an increase in the amount of tissue, resulting from cell proliferation.
2. Genesis of Hypertrophy and Hyperplasia:
Hypertrophy: Hypertrophy is mainly provoked by increased demand.
Hyperplasia: Hyperplasia is mainly provoked by excessive cell stimulation.
3. Process of Hypertrophy and Hyperplasia:
Hypertrophy: Hypertrophy is a result of cell enlargement.
Hyperplasia: Hyperplasia is a result of cell proliferation.
4. Mechanism of Hypertrophy and Hyperplasia:
Hypertrophy: Hypertrophy is a result of increased protein production in the cells.
Hyperplasia: Hyperplasia is a result of the proliferation of mature cells, driven by growth factors.
5. Affected cells of Hypertrophy and Hyperplasia:
See lessHypertrophy: Hypertrophy occurs in permanent cells (non-dividing, such as skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, etc.).
Hyperplasia: Hyperplasia occurs in labile or stable dividing cells.
What are the differences between atrophy and hypertrophy?
1. Definition: Atrophy refers to the decrease in the size of a body part, cell, organ, or other tissue while hypertrophy refers to the enlargement of an organ or tissue from the increase in the size of its cells. 2. Cause: Moreover, atrophy occurs when organs or tissues are not used at all while hypRead more
1. Definition:
Atrophy refers to the decrease in the size of a body part, cell, organ, or other tissue while hypertrophy refers to the enlargement of an organ or tissue from the increase in the size of its cells.
2. Cause:
Moreover, atrophy occurs when organs or tissues are not used at all while hypertrophy occurs due to excess work.
3. Results in:
While atrophy results in a decrease in the size of the organ, hypertrophy results in an increase in the size of the organ.
4. Physiological Importance:
Senile atrophy, the atrophy in the thymus after puberty, and atrophy in ovaries and breasts during menopause are the physiological conditions of atrophy while the muscles of bodybuilders and the uterus in pregnant mothers are the physiological conditions of hypertrophy.
5. Pathological Importance
Chronic malnutrition and other chronic diseases cause atrophy, while hypertrophy can be either adaptive or compensatory.
6. Conclusion
See lessAtrophy is the condition of decreasing the size of an organ or tissue when they are not used for a long time. Further, malnutrition, chronic diseases, and aging are the causes of atrophy. On the other hand, hypertrophy is the condition of increasing the size of an organ or tissue due to excess work. Generally, this is by increasing cell volume. As an example, muscle hypertrophy occurs in bodybuilders. Therefore, the main difference between atrophy and hypertrophy is the type of change in organs and tissues and its causes.
What are the different types of immunity?
Humans have three types of immunity: (innate, adaptive, and passive) 1. Innate immunity: Everyone is born with innate (or natural) immunity, a type of general protection. For example, the skin acts as a barrier to block germs from entering the body. And the immune system recognizes when certain invaRead more
Humans have three types of immunity: (innate, adaptive, and passive)
1. Innate immunity: Everyone is born with innate (or natural) immunity, a type of general protection. For example, the skin acts as a barrier to block germs from entering the body. And the immune system recognizes when certain invaders are foreign and could be dangerous.
See less2. Adaptive immunity: Adaptive (or active) immunity develops throughout our lives. We develop adaptive immunity when we’re exposed to diseases or when we’re immunized against them with vaccines.
3. Passive immunity: Passive immunity is “borrowed” from another source and it lasts for a short time. For example, antibodies in a mother’s breast milk give a baby temporary immunity to diseases to which the mother has been exposed.
What are the Laboratory diagnosis of staphylococcus aureus?
Medical laboratory diagnosis: The primary objective in laboratory diagnosis is to identify whether the diagnosed S. aureus isolate is methicillin-resistant. Since MRSA emerged as a problematic pathogen, a systematic diagnostic approach is necessary for early diagnosis so that treatment with appropriRead more
Medical laboratory diagnosis:
See lessThe primary objective in laboratory diagnosis is to identify whether the diagnosed S. aureus isolate is methicillin-resistant. Since MRSA emerged as a problematic pathogen, a systematic diagnostic approach is necessary for early diagnosis so that treatment with appropriate antibiotics can be initiated as early as possible. For species identification, slide and tube coagulase tests, latex agglutination tests, and PCR-based tests are used. For detection of MRSA, determination of minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of methicillin or oxacillin or cefoxitin using broth micro-dilution method, cefoxitin disk screen, oxacillin agar screen and latex agglutination test for PBP2a and molecular methods for detection of mecA are employed.
What are the morphological characteristics of staphylococcus aureus?
1. Microscopic morphology: S. aureus cells are Gram-positive and appear in a spherical shape. They are often in clusters resembling a bunch of grapes when observed under a light microscope after Gram staining. The name ‘Staphylococcus’ was derived from Greek, meaning a bunch of grapes (staphyle) andRead more
1. Microscopic morphology:
S. aureus cells are Gram-positive and appear in a spherical shape. They are often in clusters resembling a bunch of grapes when observed under a light microscope after Gram staining. The name ‘Staphylococcus’ was derived from Greek, meaning a bunch of grapes (staphyle) and berry (kokkos). The scanning electron microscopic observation reveals roughly spherical-shaped cells with smooth surfaces. The diameter of the cells ranges from 0.5 to 1.0 μM. The transmission electron microscopy of cells shows a thick cell wall, distinctive cytoplasmic membrane, and amorphous cytoplasm.
2. General cultural and biochemical characteristics:
See lessS. aureus is an aerobic and facultative anaerobic organism that forms fairly large yellow or white colonies on nutrient-rich agar media. The yellow colour of the colonies is imparted by carotenoids produced by the organism. The term ‘aureus’ is derived from Latin, which refers to the colour of gold. The organism is often haemolytic in blood agar due to the production of four types of haemolysins (alpha, beta, gamma, and delta). Nearly all isolates of S. aureus produce coagulase enzyme, a virulence factor that also helps in the identification of the organism. The organism is salt tolerant and is able to grow in a mannitol-salt agar medium containing 7.5% sodium chloride. The organism is catalase-positive and oxidase negative.
What are the differences between necrosis and apoptosis?
Apoptosis and necrosis are both ways cells die. Apoptosis is the normal, healthy way cells die. They die naturally to maintain cellular balance in your body. Apoptosis is needed for your body to function normally. Apoptosis very rarely needs treatment. Cells die through necrosis accidentally due toRead more
Apoptosis and necrosis are both ways cells die. Apoptosis is the normal, healthy way cells die. They die naturally to maintain cellular balance in your body. Apoptosis is needed for your body to function normally. Apoptosis very rarely needs treatment.
Cells die through necrosis accidentally due to internal or external factors. These factors may include diseases, infections, injuries, or other conditions. These conditions lead to damage in your cell walls, which makes them unable to function normally. Necrosis generally needs treatment.
See lessWhat are the morphological changes that occur in cell during necrosis?
Morphology of necrotic cell: A) Cytoplasmic changes: -Increased eosinophilia – Due to denatured proteins and loss of cytoplasmic RNA. -Glassy homogenous appearance – loss of glycogen particles. -Moth eaten appearance of cytoplasm – enzymatic digestion of cytoplasmic organelles. -Whorled phospholipidRead more
Morphology of necrotic cell:
A) Cytoplasmic changes:
-Increased eosinophilia – Due to denatured proteins and loss of cytoplasmic RNA.
-Glassy homogenous appearance – loss of glycogen particles.
-Moth eaten appearance of cytoplasm – enzymatic digestion of cytoplasmic organelles.
-Whorled phospholipid masses derived from damaged cell membranes – myelin figures.
-Calcifications – fatty acids derived from phospholipid masses.
B) Electron microscopic findings: Necrotic cells are characterized by-
-Discontinuities in plasma and organellar membrane.
-Swollen mitochondria with large amorphous densities.
-Intracytoplasmic myelin figures.
-Aggregates of fluffy material representing denatured proteins.
C) Nuclear changes: Due to the non-specific breakdown of DNA, 3 patterns are identified-
See less-Karyolysis – fading of basophilia of chromatin due to enzymatic degradation of DNA by endonucleases.
-Pyknosis – nuclear shrinkage & increased basophilia.
-Karyorrhexis – pyknotic nucleus undergoes fragmentation.