Nusrat Jahan Maha - Followers Answers

1. Body fluid or tissue culture:
For the culture, a small sample of your blood, stool, urine, or bone marrow is placed on a special medium that encourages the growth of bacteria. The culture is checked under a microscope for the presence of typhoid bacteria. A bone marrow culture often is the most sensitive test for Salmonella typhi.

Although performing a culture test is the most common diagnostic test, another testing may be used to confirm a suspected typhoid fever infection, such as a test to detect antibodies to typhoid bacteria in your blood, or a test that checks for typhoid DNA in your blood.

Different types of dermatophytosis affect the body in different ways. Some types are mild, but some of them are serious. The common types of dermatophytosis include:

1. Tinea Pedis: Tinea pedis, also called Athlete’s foot, is a common skin infection of the feet caused by fungus. It may infect any part of the foot, but most often occurs between the toes (interdigital), with the space between the fourth and fifth digits most commonly afflicted.

2. Tinea Unguium: Tinea unguium, also known as Onychomycosis, is a fungal infection of the nail. Typical symptoms include white or yellow nail discoloration, thickening of the nail, and separation of the nail from the nail bed. Older people are affected more frequently, and males are affected more often than females.

3. Tinea Corporis: Tinea corporis also called tinea circinata and tinea glabrosa, is a superficial fungal infection of the arms and legs, especially on glabrous skin. Tinea corporis usually affects exposed skin but also might be spread from other infected sites. It can be acute (sudden onset and rapid spread) or chronic (slow extension of a mild, barely inflamed, rash).

4. Tinea Cruris: Tinea cruris, also referred to jock itch, is a fungal infection in the groin area in either sex, but more often in males. The infection results in itching or red with flaking skin.

5. Tinea Manuum: Tinea manuum or tinea manus, is a fungal infection of the hand. It is more aggressive than tinea pedis but similar in look. The observed symptoms in tinea manuum patients are itching, burning, cracking, and scaling.

6. Tinea Capitis: Tinea capitis, also known as herpes tonsurans and scalp ringworm, is a cutaneous fungal infection of the scalp. Its typical presentation is single or multiple patches of hair loss that may be accompanied by inflammation, scaling, pustules, and itching. Tinea manuum is predominantly seen in pre-pubertal children.

7. Tinea Barbae: Tinea barbae, also called Barber’s itch, is a fungal infection of the hair due to the infection around the bearded area of men. The transmission of tinea barbae is more often from animal to human than human to human.

8. Tinea Faciei: Tinea faciei is a fungal infection of the face. It usually results in a red rash on the face, followed by patches of small, raised bumps, and the skin may peel after treatment. Tinea faciei can spread easily to any region of the skin.

9. Tinea Versicolor: Tinea versicolor, also called pityriasis Versicolor, is a fungal infection of the skin. It is caused by yeast, and predominantly in adolescents and young adults. Tinea versicolor gets worse in hot, humid climates and may disappear during cool weather.

10. Tinea Nigra: Tinea nigra is a superficial mold infection of the stratum corneum that causes dark brown to black painless patches on the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet. Its clinical presentation is a single painless sharply demarcated brown to black macule on the palmar surface of the hand or finger or on the plantar surface of the foot or other sites.

MORPHOLOGY OF CLOSTRIDIUM TETANI
Shape – Clostridium tetani is a slender, rod shape (bacillus) bacterium with a characteristic drumstick appearance due to the presence of spores.

Size – The size of Clostridium tetani is about 4–8 µm × 0.5 µm (micrometer).

Arrangement Of Cells – Clostridium tetani are arranged singly, in pairs, or in short chains. They are pleomorphic organisms.

Motility – Clostridium tetani is a motile bacterium.

Flagella – Clostridium tetani is a flagellated bacterium with Peritrichate flagella arrangement.

Spores – The Round, terminal & Bulging spores are present in C. tetani giving the bacterium a characteristic drumstick shape appearance when examined under the microscope.

Capsule – C. tetani is a capsulated bacterium. The capsule can easily be demonstrated using India ink preparation, appearing as a clear halo on a dark background.

Gram Staining Reaction – Clostridium tetani is a Gram +ve (Positive) bacterium.

Natural history of disease refers to the progression of a disease process in an individual over time, in the absence of treatment. For example, untreated infection with HIV causes a spectrum of clinical problems beginning at the time of seroconversion (primary HIV) and terminating with AIDS and usually death. It is now recognized that it may take 10 years or more for AIDS to develop after seroconversion. Many, if not most, diseases have a characteristic natural history, although the time frame and specific manifestations of the disease may vary from individual to individual and are influenced by preventive and therapeutic measures.
The process begins with the appropriate exposure to or accumulation of factors sufficient for the disease process to begin in a susceptible host. For an infectious disease, the exposure is a microorganism. For cancer, the exposure may be a factor that initiates the process, such as asbestos fibers or components in tobacco smoke (for lung cancer), or one that promotes the process, such as estrogen (for endometrial cancer).

After the disease process has been triggered, pathological changes then occur without the individual being aware of them. This stage of subclinical disease, extending from the time of exposure to the onset of disease symptoms, is usually called the incubation period for infectious diseases, and the latency period for chronic diseases. During this stage, the disease is said to be asymptomatic (no symptoms) or inapparent. This period may be as brief as seconds for hypersensitivity and toxic reactions to as long as decades for certain chronic diseases. Even for a single disease, the characteristic incubation period has a range. For example, the typical incubation period for hepatitis A is as long as 7 weeks. The latency period for leukemia to become evident among survivors of the atomic bomb blast in Hiroshima ranged from 2 to 12 years, peaking at 6–7 years. Incubation periods for selected exposures and diseases vary from minute to decade.

Although the disease is not apparent during the incubation period, some pathologic changes may be detectable with laboratory, radiographic, or other screening methods. Most screening programs attempt to identify the disease process during this phase of its natural history since intervention at this early stage is likely to be more effective than treatment given after the disease has progressed and become symptomatic.

The onset of symptoms marks the transition from subclinical to clinical disease. Most diagnoses are made during the stage of clinical disease. In some people, however, the disease process may never progress to a clinically apparent illness. In others, the disease process may result in illness that ranges from mild to severe or fatal. This range is called the spectrum of disease. Ultimately, the disease process ends either in recovery, disability, or death.

For an infectious agent, infectivity refers to the proportion of exposed persons who become infected. Pathogenicity refers to the proportion of infected individuals who develop the clinically apparent disease. Virulence refers to the proportion of clinically apparent cases that are severe or fatal.

Because the spectrum of disease can include asymptomatic and mild cases, the cases of illness diagnosed by clinicians in the community often represent only the tip of the iceberg. Many additional cases may be too early to diagnose or may never progress to the clinical stage. Unfortunately, persons with inapparent or undiagnosed infections may nonetheless be able to transmit the infection to others. Such persons who are infectious but have subclinical diseases are called carriers. Frequently, carriers are persons with incubating disease or inapparent infection. Persons with measles, hepatitis A, and several other diseases become infectious a few days before the onset of symptoms. However, carriers may also be persons who appear to have recovered from their clinical illness but remain infectious, such as chronic carriers of the hepatitis B virus, or persons who never exhibited symptoms. The challenge to public health workers is that these carriers, unaware that they are infected and infectious to others, are sometimes more likely to unwittingly spread infection than are people with an obvious illness.

1. Uterine fibroids are frequently found incidentally during a routine pelvic exam.

2. Ultrasound. If confirmation is needed. transabdominal or transvaginal.

3. Lab tests. complete blood count (CBC) to determine if you have anemia because of chronic blood loss and other blood tests to rule out bleeding disorders or thyroid problems.

4. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). This imaging test can show in more detail the size and location of fibroids, identify different types of tumors, and help determine appropriate treatment options. An MRI is most often used in women with a larger uterus or in women approaching menopause (perimenopause).

5. Hysterosonography. Hysterosonography, also called a saline infusion sonogram, uses sterile salt water (saline) to expand the uterine cavity, making it easier to get images of submucosal fibroids and the lining of the uterus in women attempting pregnancy or who have heavy menstrual bleeding.

6. Hysterosalpingography. Hysterosalpingography uses a dye to highlight the uterine cavity and fallopian tubes on X-ray images. To determine if your fallopian tubes are open or are blocked and can show some submucosal fibroids.

7. Hysteroscopy.