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mdpathyqa Latest Articles
Updates in October 2022
New options: Improvement: Milestone:
Online Homoeopathic Consultancy
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What is self-assessment MCQs?
It is a quiz tools for improve knowledge on:
Why the myth developed that homoeopathy acts slowly?what step should be taken for it?
It's not true that Homoeopathy work slowly. According to the principle of Homoeopathy; We give medicine to the patient on the basis of constitution, individual back H/O; family back H/O, etc. With Homoeopathic similimum, the suppress disease may reappear, when your remedies is perfect. On the otherRead more
It’s not true that Homoeopathy work slowly. According to the principle of Homoeopathy; We give medicine to the patient on the basis of constitution, individual back H/O; family back H/O, etc. With Homoeopathic similimum, the suppress disease may reappear, when your remedies is perfect. On the other hand Homoeopathic remedies make cure inner to outer. During Homoeopathic medication; first improvement may start with in the mind of your patient than total vital functions of your physiology may start; in an end time improvement may start in organ or tissues phase.
See lessIn anti Homoeopathic system of medicine; they can rapidly reduce the organs or tissues abnormal localized pathology, but the internal process of disease maladies may stay constant. In this procedure of treatment the complete cure not established. When any exciting and maintaining factors may give influence to the patient; the inner maltreated diseases may appear again with as a nature of more critical & complicity. But in Homoeopathy, when cure start inner disharmony to external pathology; you become completely free from the state of diseases.
What are the components of innate immunity?
The innate immune system comprises four main components that help in defense action. Let us look at them in detail. 1. Anatomical Barriers of Innate Immunity The anatomical barrier of innate immunity involves mechanical, chemical, and biological barriers that act as the first line of defense againstRead more
The innate immune system comprises four main components that help in defense action. Let us look at them in detail.
1. Anatomical Barriers of Innate Immunity
The anatomical barrier of innate immunity involves mechanical, chemical, and biological barriers that act as the first line of defense against the pathogen.
Mechanical barriers of innate immunity: Mechanical barriers or physical barriers block the entry of pathogens into the body physically. Skin is the first mechanical barrier that makes the entry of pathogens difficult because of the epidermis. Hair, an accessory organ on the skin, also prevents the entry of pathogens.
Mucous membranes in the urinary tract, gastrointestinal tract, and respiratory tract are also mechanical barriers.
Chemical barriers of innate immunity: Chemical barriers block entry of pathogens at body openings and inner body surfaces. Examples of chemical barriers include sweat, breast milk, mucus, saliva, tears, and semen. Vaginal secretion is acidic in nature and is not endured by pathogens. Semen has zinc which is intolerable by pathogens. The digestive juices produced in the stomach also kill foreign invaders.
Biological barriers of innate immunity: There are a number of harmless bacteria that live inside our urinary, gastrointestinal and reproductive tracts that make the environment inhospitable for pathogens or harmful bacteria to survive in our body.
2. Cellular Response
The cellular response of the innate immune system involves different kinds of leukocytes that kill pathogens by phagocytosis. These leukocytes circulate in the blood and single-handedly kill the pathogens that invade our bodies.
Phagocytosis is an important cellular process where a cell engulfs larger and more harmful particles by extending its plasma membrane. In this process, the phagocytic cell extends its plasma membrane to envelope the pathogen inside it and form a vesicle called a phagosome. The phagosome then fused with the lysosome, together known as the phagolysosome. Acids and digestive enzymes secreted from the lysosome kill the pathogens.
The cells involved in phagocytosis include neutrophils, macrophages, and dendritic cells.
3. Blood Proteins
The liver cells or hepatocytes produce a range of proteins that destroy the invading pathogens. These proteins are produced as a result of the complement system. The complement system is a biochemical cascade that complements the ability of antibodies to kill pathogens. The proteins of the complement system work in the following ways:
They help in the recruitment of inflammatory cells.
They coat the surface of the pathogen, making it an easy target for destruction.
It forms a hole in the pathogen cell wall, causing its cytolysis and destruction.
It filters the neutralized antibody-antigen complexes out of the body.
4. Inflammatory Response
The inflammatory response is observed when a pathogen is able to break anatomical barriers and enter our body. Inflammation is recognized as redness, swelling, pain, and loss of function in the infected area. It is triggered by chemicals such as histamine and cytokines that are secreted by injured cells or immune system cells such as macrophages.
These chemicals recruit tissue-repairing proteins and pathogen-destroying leukocytes to the site of injury for pathogen-killing and tissue repair. Some cytokines are anti-viral in nature such that they block the protein synthesis in host cells which is a prerequisite for the virus to survive and divide.
See lessWhat are the common medicine used in food poisoning with their indicating symptoms?
Generalities; intoxication, after; botulism, food poisoning by clostridium botulinum: ars, botul, chlorpr. 1. Arsenicum album 2. Botulinum 3. Chlorpromazinum --- COMPLETE DYNAMICS 22.5
Generalities; intoxication, after; botulism, food poisoning by clostridium botulinum: ars, botul, chlorpr.
See less1. Arsenicum album
2. Botulinum
3. Chlorpromazinum
— COMPLETE DYNAMICS 22.5
What are the rubrics in the Homoeopathic Repertory on types of female genital warts?
1. Female; warts, condylomata 2. Female; warts, condylomata; bleeding 3. Female; warts, condylomata; bleeding; os uteri 4. Female; warts, condylomata; bleeding; vagina 5. Female; warts, condylomata; broad 6. Female; warts, condylomata; burning 7. Female; warts, condylomata; cauliflower, like a 8. FeRead more
1. Female; warts, condylomata
See less2. Female; warts, condylomata; bleeding
3. Female; warts, condylomata; bleeding; os uteri
4. Female; warts, condylomata; bleeding; vagina
5. Female; warts, condylomata; broad
6. Female; warts, condylomata; burning
7. Female; warts, condylomata; cauliflower, like a
8. Female; warts, condylomata; cauliflower, like a; cervix
9. Female; warts, condylomata; clitoris, upon or about
10. Female; warts, condylomata; dry
11. Female; warts, condylomata; dry; vagina
12. Female; warts, condylomata; itching
13. Female; warts, condylomata; labia
14. Female; warts, condylomata; labia; right
15. Female; warts, condylomata; moist
16. Female; warts, condylomata; offensive
17. Female; warts, condylomata; painless
18. Female; warts, condylomata; pedunculated
19. Female; warts, condylomata; pointed
20. Female; warts, condylomata; soft, red and fleshy
21. Female; warts, condylomata; stinging and burning, os uteri, during urination
22. Female; warts, condylomata; stinging, stitching
23. Female; warts, condylomata; suppurating
24. Female; warts, condylomata; syphilitic
25. Female; warts, condylomata; uterus
26. Female; warts, condylomata; uterus; cervix
27. Female; warts, condylomata; uterus; os uteri
28. Female; warts, condylomata; uterus; os uteri; externum
29. Female; warts, condylomata; vagina
30. Female; warts, condylomata; walking agg.
COMPLETE DYNAMICS 22.5
What is absent mindedness? And what is the cross reference of absent mindedness in the Homeopathic Repertory?
Absent-mindedness is where a person shows inattentive or forgetful behavior. Cross reference in COMPLETE DYNAMICS 22.5: 1. Mind; absorbed, buried in thought 2. Mind; abstraction of mind 3. Mind; brooding; thoughtless 4. Mind; concentration; difficult 5. Mind; day-dreaming 6. Mind; dream, as in a 7.Read more
Absent-mindedness is where a person shows inattentive or forgetful behavior.
Cross reference in COMPLETE DYNAMICS 22.5:
See less1. Mind; absorbed, buried in thought
2. Mind; abstraction of mind
3. Mind; brooding; thoughtless
4. Mind; concentration; difficult
5. Mind; day-dreaming
6. Mind; dream, as in a
7. Mind; dullness
8. Mind; emptiness of mind, sensation of
9. Mind; fancies; absorbed in
10. Mind; forgetfulness
11. Mind; staring, thoughtless
12. Mind; thoughts; vanishing, unable to think
13. Mind; thoughts; wandering
14. Mind; unobserving
What are the eye symptoms may occur during pregnancy & what are the rubrics in the homoeopathic Repertory?
According to the COMPLETE Repertory, the symptoms & pathology of eyes during pregnancy: 1. Inflammation & 2. Eye pain with kidney diseases. The rubric is: 1. Eyes; inflammation; retina, retinitis; albuminuria, in; pregnancy, in 2. Eyes; inflammation; retina, retinitis; pregnancy, in 3. Eyes;Read more
According to the COMPLETE Repertory, the symptoms & pathology of eyes during pregnancy:
1. Inflammation &
2. Eye pain with kidney diseases.
The rubric is:
See less1. Eyes; inflammation; retina, retinitis; albuminuria, in; pregnancy, in
2. Eyes; inflammation; retina, retinitis; pregnancy, in
3. Eyes; pain; kidney complaints of pregnancy
4. Eyes; pain; stitching; kidney complaints of pregnancy
– COMPLETE DYNAMICS 22.5
Why raw onion, garlic, prawn and beef should be avoided during Homoeopathic Medication?
Thi is not true that these foods should be avoided with all Homoeopathic Medicines, as these foods have many nutritional properties. Food and dietary restrictions are to be fixed along with Homoeopathic Medicine by considering the following points: 1. Those food, which can encourage diseases & iRead more
Thi is not true that these foods should be avoided with all Homoeopathic Medicines, as these foods have many nutritional properties. Food and dietary restrictions are to be fixed along with Homoeopathic Medicine by considering the following points:
See less1. Those food, which can encourage diseases & its pathology.
2. Those food, which can maintain diseases & its pathology.
3. Those food, which can worsen diseases & its pathology.
4. Those food, which can depressed your vitality & immunity.
5. Those food, which can reduced the dynamic medicinal action.
6. Those food, which can make barriers to the dynamic energy of Homoeopathic Medicine.
7. Those food, which are harmful for your basement miasmatic status.
8. Those food, which are susceptible to you, on the basis of your constitution.
9. Those food, which can make to you any allergic effects.
so, your Homoeopath can say properly for this purpose.
What are the rubrics in the Homoeopathic Repertory on types of male genital warts?
1. Male; ulcers; warts around, with, prepuce 2. Male; warts, condylomata; bleeding easily 3. Male; warts, condylomata; butternut-shaped hard growth on the dorsum of the penis 4. Male; warts, condylomata; cancerous 5. Male; warts, condylomata; cauliflower, like a, penis 6. Male; warts, condylomata; cRead more
1. Male; ulcers; warts around, with, prepuce
See less2. Male; warts, condylomata; bleeding easily
3. Male; warts, condylomata; butternut-shaped hard growth on the dorsum of the penis
4. Male; warts, condylomata; cancerous
5. Male; warts, condylomata; cauliflower, like a, penis
6. Male; warts, condylomata; coxcomb, like a
7. Male; warts, condylomata; crops, penis
8. Male; warts, condylomata; discharging, moist
9. Male; warts, condylomata; dry
10. Male; warts, condylomata; excoriating
11. Male; warts, condylomata; fan-shaped, penis
12. Male; warts, condylomata; fan-shaped, penis; prepuce
13. Male; warts, condylomata; fish brine smell
14. Male; warts, condylomata; fish brine smell; glans
15. Male; warts, condylomata; flat
16. Male; warts, condylomata; horny
17. Male; warts, condylomata; hot
18. Male; warts, condylomata; itching
19. Male; warts, condylomata; itching; burning, prepuce, margin, edge
20. Male; warts, condylomata; itching; penis
21. Male; warts, condylomata; itching; penis; glans
22. Male; warts, condylomata; itching; penis; prepuce
23. Male; warts, condylomata; large
24. Male; warts, condylomata; little, penis
25. Male; warts, condylomata; oozing, penis
26. Male; warts, condylomata; oozing, penis; offensive
27. Male; warts, condylomata; oozing, penis; prepuce
28. Male; warts, condylomata; oozing, penis; prepuce; moon, new, agg.
29. Male; warts, condylomata; painful
30. Male; warts, condylomata; painless
31. Male; warts, condylomata; pediculated
32. Male; warts, condylomata; pointed
33. Male; warts, condylomata; pointed; glans
34. Male; warts, condylomata; pointed; prepuce
35. Male; warts, condylomata; red, offensive
36. Male; warts, condylomata; sensitive
37. Male; warts, condylomata; smelling like old cheese
38. Male; warts, condylomata; smooth
39. Male; warts, condylomata; soft
40. Male; warts, condylomata; sore
41. Male; warts, condylomata; sore; penis
42. Male; warts, condylomata; sore; penis; itching, with
43. Male; warts, condylomata; spongy
44. Male; warts, condylomata; stitching
45. Male; warts, condylomata; suppurating
46. Male; warts, condylomata; surrounding glans completely
47. Male; warts, condylomata; syphilitic
48. Male; warts, condylomata; tickling
49. Male; warts, condylomata; tongue, and
– COMPLETE DYNAMICS 22.7
What are the rubrics in Homoeopathic Repertory on about causes of abortion?
1. Female; abortion, miscarriage; anemia, in 2. Female; abortion, miscarriage; anger, vexation, after 3. Female; abortion, miscarriage; atony of genitals, with 4. Female; abortion, miscarriage; blood poisoning, from 5. Female; abortion, miscarriage; cold, from 6. Female; abortion, miscarriage; cold,Read more
1. Female; abortion, miscarriage; anemia, in
See less2. Female; abortion, miscarriage; anger, vexation, after
3. Female; abortion, miscarriage; atony of genitals, with
4. Female; abortion, miscarriage; blood poisoning, from
5. Female; abortion, miscarriage; cold, from
6. Female; abortion, miscarriage; cold, from; damp, wet, or
7. Female; abortion, miscarriage; congestion of uterus, from
8. Female; abortion, miscarriage; congestion of uterus, from; passive
9. Female; abortion, miscarriage; congestion of uterus, from; ulceration, with
10. Female; abortion, miscarriage; cough, from
11. Female; abortion, miscarriage; cough, from; nervous
12. Female; abortion, miscarriage; degeneration of placenta, from fatty
13. Female; abortion, miscarriage; diarrhea, in
14. Female; abortion, miscarriage; drugs or narcotics, from
15. Female; abortion, miscarriage; emotions, after
16. Female; abortion, miscarriage; fever; low, from
17. Female; abortion, miscarriage; fever; typhoid, from
18. Female; abortion, miscarriage; gonorrhea, in
19. Female; abortion, miscarriage; grief, after
20. Female; abortion, miscarriage; grief, after; suppressed
21. Female; abortion, miscarriage; hardening, from uterine
22. Female; abortion, miscarriage; heated, from becoming
23. Female; abortion, miscarriage; hysteria, in
24. Female; abortion, miscarriage; inertia of uterus, with
25. Female; abortion, miscarriage; inflammation, from
26. Female; abortion, miscarriage; inflammation, from; bladder, of
27. Female; abortion, miscarriage; inflammation, from; ovaries, of, supervening
28. Female; abortion, miscarriage; influenza, in
29. Female; abortion, miscarriage; injuries, after
30. Female; abortion, miscarriage; instruments, from
31. Female; abortion, miscarriage; lead poisoning, from, if born the child lives but a year or two
32. Female; abortion, miscarriage; leucorrhea, in
33. Female; abortion, miscarriage; leucorrhea, in; profuse
34. Female; abortion, miscarriage; lifting, after
35. Female; abortion, miscarriage; nervous sensibility, from
36. Female; abortion, miscarriage; news, after bad
37. Female; abortion, miscarriage; nightwatching, after
38. Female; abortion, miscarriage; non-development of uterus, from
39. Female; abortion, miscarriage; ovarian complaints, in
40. Female; abortion, miscarriage; plethora, in
41. Female; abortion, miscarriage; prolapse of uterus
42. Female; abortion, miscarriage; prolapse of uterus; after
43. Female; abortion, miscarriage; prolapse of uterus; rectum, and of
44. Female; abortion, miscarriage; prolapse of uterus; with
45. Female; abortion, miscarriage; rheumatic complaints, in
46. Female; abortion, miscarriage; sadness, from
47. Female; abortion, miscarriage; septicemia, with threatening
48. Female; abortion, miscarriage; shock, after mental
49. Female; abortion, miscarriage; spinal complaints, in
50. Female; abortion, miscarriage; strain, after
51. Female; abortion, miscarriage; subinvolution of uterus, with
52. Female; abortion, miscarriage; syphilis, in
53. Female; abortion, miscarriage; tendency to
54. Female; abortion, miscarriage; tendency to; flabby women, in
55. Female; abortion, miscarriage; tendency to; flabby women, in; feeble venous women
56. Female; abortion, miscarriage; tendency to; frequent and easy
57. Female; abortion, miscarriage; tendency to; hemorrhage, with tendency to
58. Female; abortion, miscarriage; tendency to; hysterical women, in, disposed to faint and chilly
59. Female; abortion, miscarriage; tendency to; leucorrhea, in
60. Female; abortion, miscarriage; tendency to; menses, too profuse and too early
61. Female; abortion, miscarriage; tendency to; neuralgia, in
62. Female; abortion, miscarriage; tendency to; periodic, every day at same hour; usually from some hardening of uterus
63. Female; abortion, miscarriage; tendency to; tired and nervous women, in
64. Female; abortion, miscarriage; tendency to; weakness of uterus, from
65. Female; abortion, miscarriage; threatening; atonic condition, from
66. Female; abortion, miscarriage; threatening; cough, from
67. Female; abortion, miscarriage; thunderstorm, during
68. Female; abortion, miscarriage; toothache, in
69. Female; abortion, miscarriage; ulceration of uterus, with
70. Female; abortion, miscarriage; ulceration of uterus, with; cervix
71. Female; abortion, miscarriage; unconsciousness, in
72. Female; abortion, miscarriage; urinary complaints, in
73. Female; abortion, miscarriage; varices of genitals, with
74. Female; abortion, miscarriage; vomiting; from
75. Female; abortion, miscarriage; weakness, debility, from
76. Female; abortion, miscarriage; weather, in cold, damp, wet
77. Female; abortion, miscarriage; women; delicate, anemic
78. Female; abortion, miscarriage; women; dysmenorrhea, with history of
79. Female; abortion, miscarriage; women; feeble, who have born many children
80. Female; abortion, miscarriage; women; flabby
81. Female; abortion, miscarriage; women; leuco-phlegmatic, in
82. Female; abortion, miscarriage; women; scrawny, sallow, in
83. Female; abortion, miscarriage; women; tall, slender
84. Female; leucorrhea; abortion, with tendency to
85. Female; leucorrhea; pregnancy, in; abortion, with tendency to
86. Female; prolapse; uterus; abortion, in
– COMPLETE DYNAMICS 22.5
What are the concept of elimination?
Elimination: Elimination means stopping the transmission of a disease in a specific geographic area or country, but not worldwide. Often, the first step toward disease elimination is disease control.
Elimination: Elimination means stopping the transmission of a disease in a specific geographic area or country, but not worldwide. Often, the first step toward disease elimination is disease control.
See lessWhat are the concept of eradication?
The word "Eradication" is derived from Latin word "radix" which means "root". It may refer to: 1. Eradication of infectious diseases (human), the reduction of the global incidence of an infectious disease in humans to zero. 2. Eradication of infectious diseases (animal), the reduction of the globalRead more
The word “Eradication” is derived from Latin word “radix” which means “root”. It may refer to:
1. Eradication of infectious diseases (human), the reduction of the global incidence of an infectious disease in humans to zero.
2. Eradication of infectious diseases (animal), the reduction of the global incidence of an infectious disease in its animal host(s) to zero.
See lessWhat are the different types of Thalassemia?
Hemoglobin molecules are made of chains called alpha and beta chains that can be affected by mutations. In thalassemia, the production of either the alpha or beta chains are reduced, resulting in either alpha-thalassemia or beta-thalassemia. In alpha-thalassemia, the severity of thalassemia you haveRead more
Hemoglobin molecules are made of chains called alpha and beta chains that can be affected by mutations. In thalassemia, the production of either the alpha or beta chains are reduced, resulting in either alpha-thalassemia or beta-thalassemia.
In alpha-thalassemia, the severity of thalassemia you have depends on the number of gene mutations you inherit from your parents. The more mutated genes, the more severe your thalassemia.
In beta-thalassemia, the severity of thalassemia you have depends on which part of the hemoglobin molecule is affected.
1. Alpha-thalassemia:
Four genes are involved in making the alpha hemoglobin chain. You get two from each of your parents. If you inherit:
One mutated gene, you’ll have no signs or symptoms of thalassemia. But you are a carrier of the disease and can pass it on to your children.
Two mutated genes, your thalassemia signs and symptoms will be mild. This condition might be called alpha-thalassemia trait.
Three mutated genes, your signs and symptoms will be moderate to severe.
Inheriting four mutated genes is rare and usually results in stillbirth. Babies born with this condition often die shortly after birth or require lifelong transfusion therapy. In rare cases, a child born with this condition can be treated with transfusions and a stem cell transplant.
2. Beta-thalassemia:
in making the beta hemoglobin chain. You get one from each of your parents. If you inherit:
One mutated gene, you’ll have mild signs and symptoms. This condition is called thalassemia minor or beta-thalassemia.
Two mutated genes, your signs and symptoms will be moderate to severe. This condition is called thalassemia major, or Cooley anemia.
Babies born with two defective beta hemoglobin genes usually are healthy at birth but develop signs and symptoms within the first two years of life. A milder form, called thalassemia intermedia, also can result from two mutated genes.
See lessWhat is Thalassemia?
Thalassemia is an inherited blood disorder that causes your body to have less hemoglobin than normal. Hemoglobin enables red blood cells to carry oxygen. Thalassemia can cause anemia, leaving you fatigued.
Thalassemia is an inherited blood disorder that causes your body to have less hemoglobin than normal. Hemoglobin enables red blood cells to carry oxygen. Thalassemia can cause anemia, leaving you fatigued.
See lessHow we can diagnosis a case of glomerulonephritis?
Tests to assess your kidney function and make a diagnosis of glomerulonephritis include: 1. Urine test. A urinalysis can reveal signs of poor kidney function, such as red blood cells and proteins that should not be in urine or white blood cells that are a sign of inflammation. There also may be a laRead more
Tests to assess your kidney function and make a diagnosis of glomerulonephritis include:
1. Urine test. A urinalysis can reveal signs of poor kidney function, such as red blood cells and proteins that should not be in urine or white blood cells that are a sign of inflammation. There also may be a lack of the expected levels of waste products.
2. Blood tests. Analysis of blood samples can reveal higher-than-expected levels of waste products in the bloodstream, the presence of antibodies that may indicate an autoimmune disorder, bacterial or viral infection, or blood sugar levels indicating diabetes.
3. Imaging tests. If your doctor detects evidence of kidney disease, he or she may recommend imaging tests that may show an irregularity in the shape or size of the kidney. These tests may be an X-ray, an ultrasound exam, or a CT scan.
4. Kidney biopsy. This procedure involves using a special needle to extract small pieces of kidney tissue to look at under a microscope. A biopsy is used to confirm a diagnosis and to assess the degree and nature of tissue damage.
See lessWhich complications are more common for liver cirrhosis?
Complications of cirrhosis can include: 1. High blood pressure in the veins that supply the liver (portal hypertension). Cirrhosis slows the normal flow of blood through the liver, thus increasing pressure in the vein that brings blood to the liver from the intestines and spleen. 2. Swelling in theRead more
Complications of cirrhosis can include:
1. High blood pressure in the veins that supply the liver (portal hypertension). Cirrhosis slows the normal flow of blood through the liver, thus increasing pressure in the vein that brings blood to the liver from the intestines and spleen.
2. Swelling in the legs and abdomen. The increased pressure in the portal vein can cause fluid to accumulate in the legs (edema) and in the abdomen (ascites). Edema and ascites also may result from the inability of the liver to make enough of certain blood proteins, such as albumin.
3. Enlargement of the spleen (splenomegaly). Portal hypertension can also cause changes to and swelling of the spleen, and trapping of white blood cells and platelets. Decreased white blood cells and platelets in your blood can be the first sign of cirrhosis.
4. Bleeding. Portal hypertension can cause blood to be redirected to smaller veins. Strained by the extra pressure, these smaller veins can burst, causing serious bleeding. Portal hypertension may cause enlarged veins (varices) in the esophagus (esophageal varices) or the stomach (gastric varices) and lead to life-threatening bleeding. If the liver can’t make enough clotting factors, this also can contribute to continued bleeding.
5. Infections. If you have cirrhosis, your body may have difficulty fighting infections. Ascites can lead to bacterial peritonitis, a serious infection.
6. Malnutrition. Cirrhosis may make it more difficult for your body to process nutrients, leading to weakness and weight loss.
7. Buildup of toxins in the brain (hepatic encephalopathy). A liver damaged by cirrhosis isn’t able to clear toxins from the blood as well as a healthy liver can. These toxins can then build up in the brain and cause mental confusion and difficulty concentrating. With time, hepatic encephalopathy can progress to unresponsiveness or coma.
8. Jaundice. Jaundice occurs when the diseased liver doesn’t remove enough bilirubin, a blood waste product, from your blood. Jaundice causes yellowing of the skin and whites of the eyes and darkening of urine.
9. Bone disease. Some people with cirrhosis lose bone strength and are at greater risk of fractures.
10. Increased risk of liver cancer. A large proportion of people who develop liver cancer have pre-existing cirrhosis.
11. Acute-on-chronic cirrhosis. Some people end up experiencing multiorgan failure. Researchers now believe this is a distinct complication in some people who have cirrhosis, but they don’t fully understand its causes.
See lessWhat’re the most common causation of cholecystitis?
Cholecystitis is when your gallbladder is inflamed. Gallbladder inflammation can be caused by: 1. Gallstones. Most often, cholecystitis is the result of hard particles that develop in your gallbladder (gallstones). Gallstones can block the tube (cystic duct) through which bile flows when it leaves tRead more
Cholecystitis is when your gallbladder is inflamed. Gallbladder inflammation can be caused by:
1. Gallstones. Most often, cholecystitis is the result of hard particles that develop in your gallbladder (gallstones). Gallstones can block the tube (cystic duct) through which bile flows when it leaves the gallbladder. Bile builds up in the gallbladder, causing inflammation.
2. Tumor. A tumor may prevent bile from draining out of your gallbladder properly. This causes bile buildup that can lead to cholecystitis.
3. Bile duct blockage. Stones or thickened bile and tiny particles (sludge) can block the bile duct and lead to cholecystitis. Kinking or scarring of the bile ducts can also cause blockage.
4. Infection. AIDS and certain viral infections can trigger gallbladder inflammation.
5. Severe illness. Very severe illness can damage blood vessels and decrease blood flow to the gallbladder, leading to cholecystitis.
See lessHow we can prevent hepatitis -B?
***Testing & Vaccination: 1. The hepatitis B vaccine offers excellent protection against HBV. The vaccine is safe and highly effective. Vaccination consists of 3 doses of vaccine (shots) over the course of 6 months. Protection lasts for 20 years to life. 2. The CDC recommends hepatitis B vaccineRead more
***Testing & Vaccination:
1. The hepatitis B vaccine offers excellent protection against HBV. The vaccine is safe and highly effective. Vaccination consists of 3 doses of vaccine (shots) over the course of 6 months. Protection lasts for 20 years to life.
2. The CDC recommends hepatitis B vaccine for persons traveling to countries where HBV is common.
3. If you have one or more risk factors for hepatitis B infection, you should get a simple HBV blood test. The blood test will determine whether you are:
-immune to hepatitis B; or
-susceptible to hepatitis B and need vaccination; or
-infected with hepatitis B and need further evaluation by a physician.
4. The basic test for acute HBV infection is called the “Hepatitis B Core IgM Antibody test.” People who have acute hepatitis B show positive IgM antibodies on this test.
***Perinatal Hepatitis:
1. If the mother is HBV-infected, she will pass the infection to the baby during the birth process, unless the baby gets immunized within hours of birth.
2. Giving the infant HBIG (hepatitis B immune globulin) and HBV vaccine right away will reliably prevent infection of the infant.
3. Other family members should be best tested for hepatitis B too, and given a vaccine if they are not already infected or immune.
***Healthy Habits: (The best way to prevent hepatitis B is with vaccination. Other ways to reduce your risk of getting hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and HIV).
1. Do not inject drugs. If you do inject drugs, stop and get into a treatment program. If you can’t stop, never share needles, syringes, water, or “works”.
2. Do not share personal care items that might have blood on them (razors, toothbrushes).
3. If you are a health care or public safety worker, follow universal blood/body fluid precautions and safely handle needles and other sharps.
4. Consider the risks if you are thinking about tattooing, body piercing, or acupuncture – are the instruments properly sterilized?
5. If you’re having sex with more than one steady partner, use latex condoms correctly and every time to prevent the spread of sexually transmitted diseases, including viral hepatitis and HIV.
***After Exposure to Hepatitis B:
1. Hepatitis B infection can be prevented by getting a vaccine and HBIG (hepatitis B immune globulin) soon after coming into contact with the virus.
2. Persons who have recently been exposed to HBV should get HBIG and vaccine as soon as possible and preferably within 24 hours, but not more than 2 weeks after the exposure.
3. If you have recently been exposed to hepatitis B, you should immediately contact your doctor.
See lessWhat’re the common symptoms of laryngitis?
In most cases, laryngitis symptoms last less than a couple of weeks and are caused by something minor, such as a virus. Less often, laryngitis symptoms are caused by something more serious or long-lasting. Laryngitis signs and symptoms can include: 1. Hoarseness. 2. Weak voice or voice loss. 3. TickRead more
In most cases, laryngitis symptoms last less than a couple of weeks and are caused by something minor, such as a virus. Less often, laryngitis symptoms are caused by something more serious or long-lasting. Laryngitis signs and symptoms can include:
1. Hoarseness.
See less2. Weak voice or voice loss.
3. Tickling sensation and rawness in your throat.
4. Sore throat.
5. Dry throat.
6. Dry cough.
What are the thyroid function tests?
The major thyroid hormone secreted by the thyroid gland is thyroxine, also called T4 because it contains four iodine atoms. To exert its effects, T4 is converted to triiodothyronine (T3) by the removal of an iodine atom. This occurs mainly in the liver and in certain tissues where T3 acts, such as iRead more
The major thyroid hormone secreted by the thyroid gland is thyroxine, also called T4 because it contains four iodine atoms. To exert its effects, T4 is converted to triiodothyronine (T3) by the removal of an iodine atom. This occurs mainly in the liver and in certain tissues where T3 acts, such as in the brain. The amount of T4 produced by the thyroid gland is controlled by another hormone, which is made in the pituitary gland located at the base of the brain, called thyroid stimulating hormone (abbreviated TSH). The amount of TSH that the pituitary sends into the bloodstream depends on the amount of T4 that the pituitary sees. If the pituitary sees very little T4, then it produces more TSH to tell the thyroid gland to produce more T4. Once the T4 in the bloodstream goes above a certain level, the pituitary’s production of TSH is shut off. In fact, the thyroid and pituitary act in many ways like a heater and a thermostat. When the heater is off and it becomes cold, the thermostat reads the temperature and turns on the heater. When the heat rises to an appropriate level, the thermostat senses this and turns off the heater. Thus, the thyroid and the pituitary, like a heater and thermostat, turn on and off.
T4 and T3 circulate almost entirely bound to specific transport proteins. If the levels of these transport proteins changes, there can be changes in how much bound T4 and T3 is measured. This frequently happens during pregnancy and with the use of birth control pills. The “free” T4 or T3 is the hormone that is unbound and able to enter and affect the body tissues.
TESTS
Blood tests to measure these hormones are readily available and widely used, but not all are useful in all situations. Tests to evaluate thyroid function include the following:
TSH TESTS
The best way to initially test thyroid function is to measure the TSH level in a blood sample. Changes in TSH can serve as an “early warning system” – often occurring before the actual level of thyroid hormones in the body becomes too high or too low. A high TSH level indicates that the thyroid gland is not making enough thyroid hormone (primary hypothyroidism). The opposite situation, in which the TSH level is low, usually indicates that the thyroid is producing too much thyroid hormone (hyperthyroidism). Occasionally, a low TSH may result from an abnormality in the pituitary gland, which prevents it from making enough TSH to stimulate the thyroid (secondary hypothyroidism). In most healthy individuals, a normal TSH value means that the thyroid is functioning properly.
T4 TESTS
T4 is the main form of thyroid hormone circulating in the blood. A Total T4 measures the bound and free hormone and can change when binding proteins differ (see above). A Free T4 measures what is not bound and able to enter and affect the body tissues. Tests measuring free T4 – either a free T4 (FT4) or free T4 index (FTI) – more accurately reflect how the thyroid gland is functioning when checked with a TSH.
The finding of an elevated TSH and low FT4 or FTI indicates primary hypothyroidism due to disease in the thyroid gland. A low TSH and low FT4 or FTI indicates hypothyroidism due to a problem involving the pituitary gland. A low TSH with an elevated FT4 or FTI is found in individuals who have hyperthyroidism.
T3 TESTS
T3 tests are often useful to diagnosis hyperthyroidism or to determine the severity of the hyperthyroidism. Patients who are hyperthyroid will have an elevated T3 level. In some individuals with a low TSH, only the T3 is elevated and the FT4 or FTI is normal. T3 testing rarely is helpful in the hypothyroid patient, since it is the last test to become abnormal. Patients can be severely hypothyroid with a high TSH and low FT4 or FTI, but have a normal T3.
FREE T3
Measurement of free T3 is possible, but is often not reliable and therefore not typically helpful.
REVERSE T3
Reverse T3 is a biologically inactive protein that is structurally very similar to T3, but the iodine atoms are placed in different locations, which makes it inactive. Some reverse T3 is produced normally in the body, but is then rapidly degraded. In healthy, non-hospitalized people, measurement of reverse T3 does not help determine whether hypothyroidism exists or not, and is not clinically useful.
THYROID ANTIBODY TESTS
The immune system of the body normally protects us from foreign invaders such as bacteria and viruses by destroying these invaders with substances called antibodies produced by blood cells known as lymphocytes. In many patients with hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism, lymphocytes react against the thyroid (thyroid autoimmunity) and make antibodies against thyroid cell proteins. Two common antibodies are thyroid peroxidase antibody and thyroglobulin antibody. Measuring levels of thyroid antibodies may help diagnose the cause of the thyroid problem. For example, positive anti-thyroid peroxidase and/or anti-thyroglobulin antibodies in a patient with hypothyroidism result in a diagnosis of Hashimoto’s thyroiditis. While detecting antibodies is helpful in the initial diagnosis of hypothyroidism due to autoimmune thyroiditis, following their levels over time is not helpful in detecting the development of hypothyroidism or response to therapy. TSH and FT4 are what tell us about the actual thyroid function or levels.
A different antibody that may be positive in a patient with hyperthyroidism is the stimulatory TSH receptor antibody (TSI). This antibody causes the thyroid to be overactive in Graves’ Disease. If you have Graves’ disease, your doctor might also order a thyrotropin receptor antibody test (TSHR or TRAb), which detects both stimulating and blocking antibodies. Following antibody levels in Graves’ patients may help to assess response to treatment of hyperthyroidism, to determine when it is appropriate to discontinue antithyroid medication, and to assess the risk of passing antibodies to the fetus during pregnancy.
THYROGLOBULIN
Thyroglobulin (Tg) is a protein produced by normal thyroid cells and thyroid cancer cells. It is not a measure of thyroid function and it does not diagnose thyroid cancer when the thyroid gland is still present. It is used most often in patients who have had surgery for thyroid cancer in order to monitor them after treatment. Tg is included in this brochure of thyroid function tests to communicate that, although measured frequently in certain scenarios and individuals, Tg is not a primary measure of thyroid hormone function.
NON-BLOOD TESTS
RADIOACTIVE IODINE UPTAKE
Because T4 contains iodine, the thyroid gland must pull a large amount of iodine from the bloodstream in order to make an appropriate amount of T4. The thyroid has developed a very active mechanism for doing this. Therefore, this activity can be measured by having an individual swallow a small amount of iodine, which is radioactive. The radioactivity allows the doctor to track where the iodine goes. By measuring the amount of radioactivity that is taken up by the thyroid gland (radioactive iodine uptake, RAIU), doctors may determine whether the gland is functioning normally. A very high RAIU is seen in individuals whose thyroid gland is overactive (hyperthyroidism), while a low RAIU is seen when the thyroid gland is underactive (hypothyroidism). In addition to the radioactive iodine uptake, a thyroid scan may be obtained, which shows a picture of the thyroid gland and reveals what parts of the thyroid have taken up the iodine (see Thyroid Nodules brochure).
MEDICATIONS THAT INTERFERE WITH THYROID FUNCTION TESTING
There are many medications that can affect thyroid function testing. Some common examples include:
Estrogens, such as in birth control pills, or in pregnancy, cause high levels of total T4 and T3. This is because estrogens increase the level of the binding proteins. In these situations, it is better to ask both for TSH and free T4 for thyroid evaluation, which will typically be in the normal range.
See lessBiotin, a commonly taken over-the-counter supplement, can cause the measurement of several thyroid function tests to appear abnormal, when they are in fact normal in the blood. Biotin should not be taken for 2 days before blood is drawn for thyroid function testing to avoid this effect.